|
Click on the learning principles above
to learn more about each one.
Or, click here to return to the Home Page
1. Aligning learning
and performance contexts
This discussion will be much longer than
subsequent ones because it provides background on the human learning
system and introduces concepts that are unfamiliar to many people.
In analyzing learning, it's vital to examine
both the learning situation and the performance situation. Both have a
critical role to play. In traditional instructional-design, we focus largely
on the learning situation. In other words, we focus on how to get
information into memory. It's just as critical to focus on how we retrieve
information from memory. Information lost in memory is learning wasted.
Without memory retrieval, successful performance is impossible.
Information stored in memory can be made
more retrievable in a variety of ways. The method relevant to this learning
principle revolves around the notion of memory cues. If I can't recall your
name, you might be able to help me by giving me the first letter. You've
provided me with a memory cue.
The human learning system does not work like
a computer. Our perceptual system doesn't just focus on the key learning
message and transfer it to memory storage. As we perceive the learning
situation, we focus both on the learning messages and the
background stimuli. We integrate both into our memory stores.
Because they are intertwined in our memory,
if we think about the background information, we're likely to remember the
associated key learning messages. If I think about my waterlogged basement,
I'm likely to remember that I'm supposed to call the contractor today. If I
think about the management simulation I used last week, I'm likely to
remember to include my coworkers in decision making.
One effective
strategy, then, is to ensure that the learning situation includes background
stimuli that will also be available in the performance situation. When our
learners perceive the background stimuli, they'll be much more likely to
remember what they learned and use that information to perform successfully.
If I go down to the basement, I'm more likely to remember to call the
contractor. If the management simulation mirrors my work-day reality, it's
likely that my work-day reality will remind me to include my coworkers in
decision making.
Research has shown that visual stimuli,
odors, noise, music, drug states, and moods can produce powerful context
effects. When Mozart is played during the learning context, learners will
remember more---and perform better---when Mozart, not jazz, is played in the
performance context, and vice versa.
Context effects are more robust when people
aren't aided in the retrieval process by other cues in their performance
environments. For example, although pilots may learn safety precautions in a
simulated cockpit, the alignment between learning context and performance
context is unlikely to produce any real effect if their performance
situation already provides them with a safety checklist they have to
complete. Context effects tend to be stronger using less familiar learning
materials. Context effects are more likely when contextual background cues
are more salient.
The more specific the relationship between
the background cues and the learned information, the more powerful the
context
effects. General relationships produce learning improvements in the 5 to 40%
range, whereas specific relationships between the background and the
targeted information prompts learning improvements in the 20% to 90% range.
Return to Top
2. Providing retrieval
practice and testing
Although we tend to think of tests
as
assessment tools and as means to promote additional study time, tests are
one of the most powerful methods we have to promote the development of
useable knowledge.
People in their
performance situations must retrieve information from memory in order to
take any sort of action. Tests that provide practice on memory retrieval can
improve performance dramatically. They key is to ensure that learners
practice the same---or similar---memory retrieval routes to the ones they'll
have to use on the job.
The research shows
that testing does not have a general facilitative
effect, aside from its ability to promote studying. If you want to strengthen a particular skill or piece of
information,
you have to test that skill or that piece of information---you cannot just
ask any questions. Recall tests are better than recognition tests like
multiple choice and fill-in-the-blanks because they're more realistic and
they force deeper cognitive processing. It's important to think beyond traditional notions of
testing. Simulations and well-designed case studies have the same benefits
as testing---they induce appropriate retrieval practice.
Return to Top
3. Using appropriate
feedback schedules
Feedback helps correct learner
misconceptions. If a learner gets a correct answer or performs a skill
appropriately, feedback will produce no benefit. Correct retrieval
practice creates its own learning benefits---feedback adds nothing. But there is one caveat. If the
learner guesses and gets an answer correct, then feedback could help them
clear up their misconception. Thus, it may be helpful to provide feedback on
incorrect answers if learners are getting lots of wrong answers. Adding praise has virtually no effect when
learners get answers correct. Similarly, adding words of encouragement when
learners get answers wrong produces no benefits.
Delayed feedback is generally better than
immediate feedback (by 10 to 25%), except when the performance situation
immediately follows the learning situation or when the correction is needed
to prevent the learner from repeating a mistaken retrieval practice (it's
generally not good to have learners practice and thus strengthen the wrong
memory retrieval routes).
Return to Top
4. Prompting meaningful
repetitions
Repetition is arguably the
single most
powerful learning device. It enables learners to absorb information they
didn't comprehend initially. It provides feedback that enables learners to correct
their own misconceptions. It provides practice of already learned
information.
Unfortunately, repetition has gotten a bad
name because it has so often been misapplied. Repetition can be boring if
not meaningful, or not varied, or not spread out over time.
When compared to no repetitions at all,
initial repetitions improve learning within the range of 30 to 110%.
Subsequent repetitions produce marginally increasing improvements, generally
in the range of 15 to 40%.
Return to Top
5. Spacing
repetitions and practice over time
Spacing helps learners retain memory access
to learned information over long periods of time. Spacing prompts deeper
processing of the learned material and it helps prevent boredom and fatigue.
Spacing can be accomplished by introducing
repetitions after a delay or by interspersing repetitions with other
learning material. Longer spacings are usually most beneficial when they are
logistically possible. Spacings greater than
24 hours may be especially useful, but shorter spacings are good too if
longer spacings are impractical.
Because spacing primarily facilitates
long-term retention, it provides very little advantage if learners will
utilize the learned information immediately after the learning situation and
regularly thereafter.
Return to Top
6. Varying learning materials and delivery
methods
When learning points
are repeated, slightly varying the surface characteristics of the presented
information helps to create multiple retrieval routes through memory,
increasing the likelihood that the targeted information can be accessed from
memory when needed.
Multiple delivery
methods and other contextual variation can be especially helpful when
learners' performance situations are varied or unknown. Variation in this
case increases the breadth of situations that will trigger the retrieval of
the learned information.
Varied presentation
of learning materials provides significant benefits when repetitions of
learning points are repeated within shortened time frames.
Return to Top
7. Avoiding the
addition of distracting elements
Adding interesting graphics, animations, or
stories can hurt learning by taking learner focus away from the key learning
points.
Of course, we have to keep learner interest.
The key is to ensure that everything we add to our learning is relevant and
is directly related to the learning points we're trying to make.
In addition to the dangers cited above,
it's helpful to avoid using game-like interfaces, music, sound effects, chat rooms,
hyperlinks, and database queries that don't directly and substantially
support the learning points.
Return to Top
8. Appropriately using
learning objectives
Because objectives are intended to guide
behavior---and because instructional objectives are useful for two separate
audiences, learners and instructional designers---it's beneficial to write one set of learning
objectives for your learners and one for your design team.
Learning objectives presented to learners
have their effects because (1) they help learners focus on the most
important learning material and (2) they help create a place in memory for
the new information to reside.
Learning objectives are useful for learners
if they are well-written and very, very, very specific. Objectives should
include key words that will be used during the instruction. Prequestions can
be just as effective, and may be more effective, than learning objectives
written as statements. Learning objectives should be presented close to the
learning event---not too far in advance that learner's forget them. Learning
objectives are two-edged swords. Because they focus learners toward some
learning material, they can hurt learning for other learning material.
Return to Top
Or, click
here to continue the Quick Tour...
|
60percent.gif){kind=logo}